Digitizing the Ottoman Censuses: The Case of Constantinople (Istanbul), by Tryfonas Lemontzoglou

Ethnic Composition of Constantinople’s Population, 1897

The 1897 population figures portray Constantinople as a multi-ethnic urban centre of the Ottoman Empire. Turks constituted the majority of the recorded population (56.4%), followed by Greeks (22.3%) and Armenians (15.3%). Together, these three groups accounted for approximately 94% of the total, while Jews represented a further 4.4%. Smaller recorded communities included Albanians, Kurds, Serbians, and Christian Arabs.

The figures highlight the substantial demographic presence of Greek and Armenian communities alongside the Turkish majority. They also illustrate the city’s diverse social and cultural composition at the end of the nineteenth century.

Population of Constantinople in 1885: Natives and Newcomers

The 1885 population figures reveal notable differences in the religious composition of Constantinople’s native-born and non-native-born populations. Muslims accounted for 59.4% of those born outside the city, compared with 42.5% of the Istanbul-born population. By contrast, Armenian Orthodox Christians represented a larger share of the native-born population (23.3%) than of those born elsewhere (17.5%). A similar, though less pronounced, pattern is observed among Jewish residents, who accounted for 12.5% of the native-born population but only 0.5% of those born outside the city.

The Greek Orthodox population maintained a relatively similar share in both groups, representing 20.3% of those born in Constantinople and 20.7% of those born elsewhere. The figures also point to the presence of smaller communities, including Bulgarians, whose share was higher among the non-native-born population (1.1%) than among native-born residents.

Religious Composition of the Male Occupational Population of Constantinople (%), 1885

The distribution of male residents across occupational groups reveals a predominantly Muslim composition (49.4%), followed by Greek Orthodox (22.52%) and Armenian Orthodox (20.58%) residents. Together, these three groups accounted for approximately 92.5% of the recorded male occupational population. Jewish residents represented a further 5.49%, while Bulgarians, Catholics, Protestants, and Latins accounted for comparatively small shares.

Religious Composition of Constantinople’s Male Population in Commerce, Trade and Industry (%), 1885

The distribution of male residents engaged in commerce, trade, and industry reveals a more balanced representation of the three largest religious groups than that observed in the overall occupational population. Greek Orthodox residents accounted for 25.41% of the recorded population in this sector, while Armenian Orthodox residents represented 26.99%. Muslims constituted the largest single group, at 38.32%. Jewish residents accounted for a further 5.24%, with the remaining communities representing comparatively small shares.

Taken together, Muslims, Greek Orthodox, and Armenian Orthodox residents accounted for approximately 90.7% of the recorded male population in commerce, trade, and industry. The figures highlight the substantial presence of Greek Orthodox and Armenian Orthodox men in this broad occupational category alongside the Muslim population.

Commerce, Trade and Industry: Occupational Participation by Religious Group, 1885

The figures reveal substantial differences in the occupational distribution of male residents across religious communities in Constantinople. Among the groups listed, Bulgarians recorded the highest share in commerce, trade, and industry (81.4%), followed by Catholics (55.5%) and Latins (47.5%). Armenian Orthodox men also displayed a high level of representation in this occupational category (43.0%), compared with Greek Orthodox men (36.8%), Jewish men (31.1%), and Muslim men (25.4%). Protestants recorded a similar share, at 25.3%.

These figures suggest that commerce, trade, and industry occupied different positions within the recorded occupational profiles of Constantinople’s religious communities. The differences are particularly notable for Armenian Orthodox and Greek Orthodox men relative to Muslim men. However, the high percentage recorded for Bulgarians should be interpreted cautiously, especially if the underlying population of this group was comparatively small.

Religious Composition of Constantinople’s Male State-Service Population (%), 1885

The figures reveal an overwhelming predominance of Muslim men in Constantinople’s recorded state-service population in the period covered by the source. Muslims accounted for 95.34% of the total, while Armenian Orthodox men represented 2.05% and Greek Orthodox men 1.44%. All other recorded religious communities accounted for comparatively small shares.

This distribution points to a pronounced religious concentration within the male state-service population. The contrast with the occupational composition of commerce, trade, and industry is particularly noteworthy, as the latter included substantially larger shares of Greek Orthodox and Armenian Orthodox residents. The figures document a striking difference between these occupational sectors, although further evidence would be needed to establish the institutional mechanisms behind it.

State Service: Occupational Participation by Religious Group, 1885

The figures reveal substantial differences in the share of each religious community recorded in state service. Muslim men had the highest proportion, at 11.4%, followed by Latin men (5.3%) and Catholic men (4.7%). The corresponding shares were considerably lower among Armenian Orthodox (0.6%), Protestant (0.6%), Greek Orthodox (0.4%), and Jewish men (0.4%). Bulgarians recorded the lowest share, at 0.03%.

The contrast between the Muslim population and several non-Muslim communities is particularly striking. While the previous figures showed the overwhelming predominance of Muslims in the overall state-service population, these data suggest that the pattern remains visible when examining the distribution within each religious group.

Gainful Employment among the Population Aged over Ten in the Ottoman Empire, 1894–1895 (%)

The map reveals substantial regional variation in the proportion of the population aged over ten recorded as engaged in gainful employment across the Ottoman Empire in 1894–1896. The highest reported percentages were observed in Dersaadet (Constantinople), at 86.6%, followed by Manastir (81.61%) and Selanik (77.95%). By contrast, Yemen (40%), Bitlis (41.49%), Erzurum (42.53%), and Adana (42.48%) recorded some of the lowest figures. Several districts, including Biga (70.4%), Aydin (61.46%), Iskodra (61.85%), Hudavendigar (62.29%), and Trabzon (61.55%), also displayed relatively high percentages. Overall, the geographical distribution points to considerable differences in recorded participation in gainful employment across Ottoman administrative districts. Differences may reflect regional economic structures, demographic composition, gender roles, and the census’s definitions and recording practices. The particularly high figure for Constantinople also warrants attention to the effects of urban occupational structures and the historical classification of economically active populations.

Employment in Trade and Industry (Crafts) across Ottoman Administrative Districts, 1894–1895 (%)

The map reveals substantial regional variation in employment in trade and industry (crafts) across the Ottoman Empire in 1894–1896. The highest recorded percentages were in Trabzon (53.77%) and Manastir (52.39%), followed by Dersaadet (Constantinople) and Selanik (Thessaloniki), both at 43.49%. Hicaz also recorded a relatively high value of 40.66%. By contrast, the lowest percentages were observed in Yemen (21.18%), Bitlis (21.26%), and Mamuretulaziz (23.16%). These differences point to the uneven geographical distribution of craft-related economic activity across Ottoman administrative districts. The relatively high figures in several urban and regional centres may reflect differences in local production, commercial networks, and economic specialization.

Gross Annual Income (per capita), 1894–1895 (kuruş)

The map reveals substantial regional variation in gross annual income per capita across the Ottoman Empire in 1894–1895, measured in kuruş. The highest recorded values were observed in Cezayir-i Bahr-i Sefid (197.40 kuruş), Adana (188.20), Diyarbekir (184.05), and Catalca (175.81). By contrast, Ankara (46.57), Yemen (50.11), Sivas (60.51), and Halep (65.49) recorded comparatively low values. The reported figure for Hicaz, at just 2.75 kuruş, is exceptionally low.

The geographical distribution of income does not closely mirror the patterns observed in the previous maps of gainful employment and occupational activity. Several districts with high recorded employment shares, including Manastir and Selanik, had comparatively modest per capita income figures. This divergence suggests that the proportion of the population engaged in gainful employment and the level of income per capita captured distinct dimensions of regional economic conditions.